Armstrong, David, A Combinatorial Theory of Possibility, 1989, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Baldwin, Thomas, There might be nothing, 1996, Analysis, 56: 231–38.

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Bennett, Jonathan, Spinoza’s Vacuum Argument, 1980, Midwest Studies in Philosophy (Volume 5), Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Bergson, Henri, Creative Evolution, 1944, trans. A. Mitchell, New York: The Modern Library.

Brenner, Andrew, What do we mean when we ask ‘Why is there something rather than nothing?’, 2016, Erkenntnis, 81: 1305–1322.

Carlson, Erik & Erik J. Olsson, The Presumption of Nothingness, Ratio, 14: 203–221.2001,

Carnap, Rudolf, The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language, 1932, trans. Arthur Pap, in A. J. Ayer (ed.), Logical Positivism, New York: The Free Press, 60–81. Originally published in German in Erkenntnis, Volume 2.

Carroll, John W., Laws of Nature, 1994, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Casati, Filippo & Naoya Fujikawa, Better Than Zilch? 2015, Logic and Logical Philosophy 24(2): 255–264.

Coggins, Geraldine, Could There Have Been Nothing? Against Metaphysical Nihilism, 2010, London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Dallmayr, Fred, Nothingness and Śūnyatā: A Comparison of Heidegger and Nishitani, 1992, Philosophy East and West, 42/1: 37–48. doi:10.2307/1399690

Efird, D. & Stoneham, T., The Subtraction Argument for Metaphysical Nihilism, 2005, Journal of Philosophy, 102: 303–325.

Efird, D. & Stoneham, T., Is Metaphysical Nihilism Interesting?, 2009, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly, 90(2): 210–231.

Epstein, Lewis C., Thinking Physics is Gedanken Physics, 1983, San Francisco: Insight Press.

Fleming, N. Why is There Something Rather that Nothing? in Analysis, Vol. 48, No. 1, (1988) [especially p. 35].

Gale, Richard, Negation and Non-Being, 1976, American Philosophical Quarterly (Monograph Series No. 10).

Gardner, Martin, Mathematical Magic Show, 1977, New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Gerson, Lloyd P., Goodness, Unity and Creation in the Platonic Tradition. In: Wippel, John F. (Hg.): The Ultimate Why Question. Why Is There Anything at All Rather than Nothing Whatsoever? Washington 2011, S. 29– 43.

Grant, E., Much ado about Nothing. Theories of Space and Vacuum from the Middle Ages to the Scientific Revolution, 1981, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Grossmann, Reinhardt, The Existence of the World, 1992, London: Routledge.

Hawking, Stephen & Leonard Mlodinow, The Grand Design, 2010, New York: Bantam Books.

Heidegger, Martin, The Origin of the Work of Art - Heidegger's work on art and the question of being discusses the relationship between nothingness and creation, and how art can help us understand the nature of existence.

Heil, John, Contingency, in The Puzzle of Existence,2013, Tyron Goldschmidt (ed.), New York: Routledge, 167–181.

Hugo, Victor, Les Misérables, translated by Charles Wilbour, 1862, New York: Random House.

James, William, Some Problems of Philosophy 1911, New York: Longmans, Green and Co.

Kierkegaard, Søren, The Concept of Anxiety - Kierkegaard's work on anxiety and the human condition discusses the role of nothingness in human experience and how it relates to questions of existence and meaning.

Kierkegaard, Søren The Concept of Dread 1944, Ttranslated by Walter Lowie, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Kotzen, Matthew, The Probabilistic Explanation of Why There is Something Rather Than Nothing, 2013, in The Puzzle of Existence, Tyron Goldschmidt (ed.), New York: Routledge, 215–234.

Krauss, Lawrence M., A Universe from Nothing, 2012, New York: Free Press.

Kripke, Saul, Naming and Necessity, 1980, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Leeming, Joseph, Riddles, Riddles, Riddles, 1953, New York: Franklin Watts, Inc.

Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, Philosophische Schriften. 7 Bde. Berlin 1875.

Lewis, David, Void and Object, in Causation and Counterfactuals, 2004, John Collins, Ned Hall, and L. A. Paul (eds.), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 277–290.

Lewis, David, On the Plurality of Worlds, 1986, Oxford: Blackwell.

Lowe, E. J., Why is There Anything at All?, 1996, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 70: 111–120.

Lowe, E. J., Metaphysical Nihilism Revisited, in The Puzzle of Existence, Tyron Goldschmidt (ed.), 2013, New York: Routledge, 182–196.

Lowe, E. J., Metaphysical nihilism and the subtraction argument, 2002, Analysis, 62: 62–73.

Maitzen, Stephen, Stop Asking ‘Why There’s Anything’, 2012, Erkenntnis, 77: 51–63.

Martin, Richard M., Of Time and the Null Individual, 1965, Journal of Philosophy, 62(24): 723–736.

Merleau-Ponty, M., The Visible and the Invisible. 1968. Northwestern University Press. Investigates the nature of being, perception, and potentialities in relation to phenomenology and existentialism.

Mumford, Stephen, Absence and Nothing: the Philosophy of What There is Not 2021, Clarendon: Oxford University Press.

Munitz, M. K., The Mystery of Existence, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.1965, 

Nagarjuna, The Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way: Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika. 1995. Oxford University Press. - A central text in Mahayana Buddhism that examines the concept of emptiness, interdependence, and the nature of reality.

Nagel, Thomas, The Last Word - Nagel's book explores the limits of scientific inquiry and the question of why there is something rather than nothing, arguing that there may be limits to our ability to understand this question. Akademietagung zum 100jährigen Gedenken an ›Le Point de départ de la recherche philosophique‹ (1906) von Maurice Blondel. London 2007, S. 153–190.

Nozick, Robert, Philosophical Explanations, Clarendon Press, Oxford, (1981) pp. 115-137

Parfit, Derek, The Puzzle of Reality: Why does the Universe Exist?, in Metaphysics: The Big Questions, 1998, ed. Peter Van Inwagen and D. W. Zimmerman, Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 418–426.

Parsons, Terence, Nonexistent Objects, 1980, New Haven: Yale University Press.

Pascal, Blaise, Pensées, 1669, trans. W. F. Trotter, The Harvard Classics, Volume XCVIII, Part 1, New York: P. F. Collier & Sons, 1909–14.

Paseau, Alexander, Why the subtraction argument does not add up, 2003, Analysis, 62: 73–75.

Priest, Graham, One: Being an Investigation Into the Unity of Reality and of its Parts, Including the Singular Object Which is Nothingness, 2014, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Quine, W. V. O., On What There Is, From a Logical Point of View, 1953a, New York: Harper & Row.

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Robbiano, Chiara, Becoming Being. On Parmenides’ Transformative Philosophy. Sankt Augustin 2006.

Rodriguez-Pereyra, Gonzalo, There might be nothing: the subtraction argument improved, 1997, Analysis, 57(3): 159–166.

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Rowe, William, The Cosmological Argument, 1975, Princeton: Princeton University Press.

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Schmitt, Charles, Experimental Evidence for and Against a Void: the Sixteenth-Century Arguments, 1967, Isis, 58: 352–366.

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Schopenhauer, Arthur, The World as Will and Representation 1819, (Volume 2), E. F. J. Payne (trans.), Colorado: The Falcon Wing Press, 1958. Schopenhauer's influential work on metaphysics and the nature of reality discusses the question of why there is anything at all and the role of the will in human experience.

Sgaravatti, Daniele & Giuseppe Spolaore, Out of Nothing, 2018, Thought: A Journal of Philosophy, 7(2): 132–138.

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___________________________________________

* Partially enriched search by ChatGPT 4 (IV-V 2023)

 »Nicht wie die Welt ist, ist das Mystische, sondern dass sie ist.« Wittgenstein.

= „It is not how the world is that is mystical, but that it is.“

Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus 6.44 &

2^nd creative phase: Lecture on Ethics, p. 10.

A.1. The Conceptual Field of Nothingness

 When the author of this book - whose native language is German - learned English as a self-study after several school languages, he was immediately fascinated by the multitude of English terms that surround the concept of Nothing as approximate synonyms.

1. Basic Terms

2. Related Linguistic Concepts and Nuances

3. A Systematic Overview of the Concepts

A.1.1. Basic Terms

• Absence: This is a general term for the state of something being missing or not present.

• Blank: This can refer to an empty space to be filled in, or more generally to the absence of any thing or action.

• Emptiness: This is a term that often captures a sense of void or lack of substance, and it can also refer to feelings of hollowness or lack of purpose.

• Naught: An older term, often used poetically, that means nothing or zero.

• Negation: This is a general term for the denial or contradiction of something, which can indirectly relate to the concept of „nothingness“.

• Nihilism: This is a philosophical belief that all values are baseless, nothing is knowable, and that life itself is without purpose or meaning. It's strongly associated with the concept of „nothingness“.

• Nil: This is another term that is used to represent the absence of value or a zero quantity. It is often used in the context of scoring in games or sports, and in some programming languages.

• Nonentity: This term can be used to refer to a person or thing with no special or interesting qualities; an unimportant person or thing. It can also refer to nonexistence or the absence of substance or reality.

• Nonexistence: This term directly captures the concept of something not existing.

• Null: This is often used in a mathematical or programming context to represent the absence of value or data.

• Oblivion: Although it often refers to the state of being forgotten or unknown, it can also mean a state of nothingness or nonexistence.

• Vacant: This refers to a place that is empty or not filled.

• Void: This refers to an empty space or a vacuum, and it can also metaphorically refer to a sense of emptiness or absence.

• Voidness: Similar to „void,“ this term refers to the quality or state of being void.

• Zilch: This is a colloquial term used to denote the absence of something or a zero quantity. It's often used informally to indicate that there is nothing of something.

• Zero: In mathematics, zero is the number that represents nothing.

A.1.2. Related Linguistic Concepts and Nuances

• Bareness: This term refers to the state of being bare, empty or uncovered.

• Desolation: This term refers to a state of complete emptiness or destruction.

• Inanity: While this term often refers to silliness or foolishness, it can also refer to emptiness or a lack of substance.

• Negligible: This term refers to something that is so small or unimportant as to be not worth considering; insignificant.

• Nullification: This is the act of nullifying something or rendering it void. It can refer to the invalidation of something, or the process of cancelling something out.

• Nullity: This term can refer to something that has no legal force or validity, or more generally to something that is of no importance or worth.

• Vacuity: This refers to the state of being empty or vacant. It can be used to describe both physical emptiness (such as a vacuity in a vessel) and metaphysical or intellectual emptiness.

• Vanishing: This term refers to gradually ceasing to exist or becoming imperceptible; fading away, which connects it to the concept of moving towards nothingness.

• Voidance: This is the act of voiding or the state of being voided. It can be used to describe the removal or nullification of something.

A.1.3. A Systematic Overview of the Concepts

• Absence, Bareness, Desolation, Emptiness: These words often have a more emotional or psychological connotation, and can be used metaphorically to refer to feelings of lack or absence. They often come up in discussions of human experience and existential concerns.

• Inanity: This term combines elements of emptiness and foolishness, and is often used to critique arguments or positions seen as lacking in substance or sense.

• Negligible, Nonentity: These words refer to the insignificance: they often come up in discussions of value, importance, and significance, both in ethics and in other areas of philosophy.

• Nihilism: This term refers to a philosophical perspective that denies the existence of inherent value, meaning, or truth. It's a more specific and extreme form of „nothingness“ that has significant implications for ethics, epistemology, and metaphysics.

• Naught, Nil, Nothing, Nothingness, Nonexistence, Zilch: These words are all quite direct in their reference to the absence of something. They are central to existentialist philosophy, where the possibility of „nothingness“ is a key theme, as well as in discussions of metaphysics and ontology more generally.

• Vacant, Vacuity, Void, Voidance, Voidness: These words all refer to emptiness or absence in a physical or metaphysical sense. They are often used when discussing the nature of space and the universe, and the philosophical and metaphysical implications of emptiness or absence. In Buddhist philosophy, for instance, the concept of „voidness“ or „emptiness“ is a fundamental aspect of reality.

• Vanishing: This term is dynamic, suggesting a movement towards non-existence or absence. It could be used to discuss temporal aspects of existence and non-existence, or processes of change and transformation.

• Negation, Null, Nullification, Nullity, Zero: These terms often have a more mathematical or logical connotation, and they play a significant role in discussions of logic and formal systems in philosophy. They also come up in philosophical discussions about the nature of numbers and mathematical reality.

 These words cover a wide range of concepts related to „nothingness“, each with its own connotations and implications. The most relevant concepts for a given philosophical discussion would depend on the specific questions and issues being considered. For instance, a debate about the nature of space might focus on „void“ and „vacuity“, while a discussion of existential angst might center on „emptiness“ and „absence“. Each of these words provides a different lens through which to explore the rich and complex concept of „nothingness“.

A.2. Formulations and Basic aspects of the Question of Being

 The question has been pondered by thinkers, philosophers, and theologians for centuries, and has inspired various ideas and theories. The question of being encompasses various fields of study, including cosmology, philosophy, and spirituality. Cosmology seeks to explain the ultimate cause of existence, with scientific theories such as the Big Bang Theory and religious perspectives. Philosophy has long been concerned with questions of existence, including the nature of reality, the self, and the meaning of life. Meanwhile, spirituality delves into the fundamental purpose and meaning of our existence, and the role of consciousness in reality is a topic of debate among different fields of study. The interplay between science, philosophy, and spirituality can offer unique insights into the question of being and lead to a more comprehensive understanding. Ultimately, the existential question is subjective and open to interpretation, with different people finding meaning and purpose in various ways.

 The question of being, which encompasses the nature of existence, the self, and the meaning of life, has been a topic of interest for philosophy for centuries. Two philosophical approaches to the question of being are existentialism, which emphasizes individual freedom and responsibility, and metaphysics, which seeks to understand the fundamental nature of reality. The role of consciousness in reality is also a subject of debate among philosophers, scientists, and spiritual practitioners, with some arguing that consciousness is a fundamental aspect of reality and others viewing it as an emergent property of the brain. Emerging theories and future directions in the field include developments in neuroscience and artificial intelligence, as well as continued exploration by philosophical and spiritual perspectives. The interplay between science, philosophy, and spirituality can provide unique insights into the nature of existence and lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the question of being.

1. Formulations of the Existential Question

2. Exploring the Existential Question

3. Cosmological Perspectives on the Origin of Existence

4. Philosophical Approaches to the Question

5. Linguistische Kritik an der Frage des Seins

A.2.1. Formulations the Existential Question

A.2.2. Exploring the Existential Question

„Although science may solve the problem of how the universe began,
it cannot answer the question:
Why does the universe go to all the bother of existing?“

Stephen Hawking, Black Holes and Baby Universes, 1993, ch. 9.

 The existential question is concerned with the fundamental meaning and purpose of our existence. It asks questions like „Why are we here?“ and „What is the meaning of life?“ It is a question that has been pondered by thinkers, philosophers, and theologians for centuries, and has inspired a range of ideas and theories about the nature of existence. The complexity and depth of the existential question, as well as the various ways it has been explored and interpreted throughout history, continues to inspire thought and reflection in individuals across different cultures and beliefs.

 The concept of the existential question is concerned with the fundamental purpose and meaning of our existence. This question has been pondered by scholars across different fields of study for centuries, and has given rise to numerous ideas and theories about the nature of our existence.

 The question Why are we here? is a complex one and can be interpreted in various ways. Some may approach it from a religious or spiritual perspective, believing that we have a divine purpose or destiny. Others may view it from a scientific perspective, considering the evolution of life and our place in the universe. Still, others may view it as a subjective question, finding meaning and purpose in their own personal experiences and connections with others.

 Similarly, the question What is the meaning of life? is also subjective and open to interpretation. It can be approached from various perspectives, such as ethical, moral, and existential. Some may find meaning in the pursuit of knowledge, others in the pursuit of happiness, and others in making a positive impact on the world.

A.2.3. Cosmological Perspectives on the Origin of Existence

 Cosmology is the study of the origins and evolution of the universe. It is concerned with questions about the beginning of time, the nature of space, and the origins of matter and energy. Cosmological perspectives on the origin of existence seek to explain the ultimate cause of the universe's existence and the laws that govern it. Cosmological perspectives include scientific theories such as the Big Bang Theory. Scientific and religious perspectives can offer different explanations for the ultimate cause of the universe's existence and the laws that govern it: While scientific cosmologies are based on empirical evidence and mathematical models, religious cosmologies are rooted in faith and belief in a divine creator.

„Man is equally incapable of seeing the nothingness from which he emerges
and the infinity in which he is engulfed.“
Blaise Pascal, Pensées

 Let's now highlight the concept of cosmology and how it relates to the origin of existence. Cosmology is a branch of science that studies the origins, evolution, and ultimate fate of the universe. It seeks to explain the fundamental laws that govern the universe and its components. The cosmological perspectives are concerned with the ultimate cause of the universe's existence, including the origins of matter and energy, the nature of space, and the beginning of time.

 Mankind tried two different perspectives regarding the origin of existence: scientific and religious. The scientific perspective on cosmology is based on empirical evidence, mathematical models, and experimental observations. One of the most prominent scientific theories regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. This theory proposes that the universe began as a singularity, a point of infinite density and temperature, and then expanded rapidly, creating space and time. The Big Bang Theory is supported by a wide range of observations and experiments, including the cosmic microwave background radiation, the distribution of galaxies, and the abundance of light elements.

 On the other hand, the religious perspective on cosmology is based on faith and belief in a divine creator. Different religious traditions offer different explanations for the origin of the universe, often grounded in their respective creation stories. For example, the Judeo-Christian tradition posits that the Creator created the universe in six days, while Hinduism and Buddhism propose cyclical models of creation and destruction. Religious cosmologies are not subject to empirical verification or falsification, and they often rely on supernatural or metaphysical concepts.

A.2.4. Philosophical Approaches to the Question

 Philosophy has long been concerned with questions of existence, including the nature of reality, the self, and the meaning of life. Philosophical approaches to the question of being include existentialism, which emphasizes individual freedom and responsibility, and metaphysics, which seeks to understand the fundamental nature of reality. Consciousness is the subjective experience of awareness and perception.

 There are of course different philosophical approaches to the question of being, which is concerned with the nature of existence and the meaning of life. Philosophy has a long history of exploring these questions, and two philosophical approaches are mentioned here: existentialism and metaphysics.

 Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom, responsibility, and subjective experience. It holds that existence precedes essence, meaning that individuals are not born with a pre-determined purpose or meaning in life, but rather they must create their own meaning through their choices and actions. Existentialists believe that individuals must confront the inherent meaninglessness and absurdity of existence and find their own purpose in life.

 Metaphysics, on the other hand, is a branch of philosophy that seeks to understand the fundamental nature of reality. It explores questions such as the relationship between mind and body, the nature of space and time, and the existence of a Creator. Metaphysical theories often involve abstract concepts and can be difficult to prove or disprove empirically.

A.2.5. Linguistic Criticisms to the Question of Being

 As an example for modern linguistic criticisms we give here Michael Heller's three protests against the Leibniz question: „Why is there something rather than nothing?“ They highlight the new perspective that we must rigorously analyze the assumptions and logical structure behind philosophical questions. They show Heller's commitment to integrating rigorous philosophical, logical, and scientific thinking.

„Nothing takes place without sufficient reason, that is (...) nothing happens without it being possible for someone
who knows enough things to give a reason sufficient to determine why it is so and not otherwiese.
Asssumung this principle, the first question we have the right to ask will be, why is there something rather than nothing?
For nothing is simpler and easier than something. Furthermore, assuming hat things must exist,
we must be able to give a reason for why they must exist in this way, and not otherwiese.“
Leibniz, Principles of Nature and Grace, section 7.

A.3. Why Questions

 The different formulations of the „Why“ question regarding the question of being explore various aspects and dimensions of existence. While they may have distinct focuses, they share a common underlying inquiry into the nature of being and the reasons for its existence. The text explores various formulations of the question „Why is there something rather than nothing?“ focusing on different types of existence: all beings, concrete beings, contingent beings, their specific characteristics, and their existence in the present moment. It also discusses the impossibility of an absolute void and the philosophical debates around the validity of the question and the possibility of a completely empty world. Theories are presented such as Robert Nozick's idea of nothingness as a „natural state“ that could produce something, Edward Tryon's theory that the universe originated from a quantum fluctuation, and Leibniz's assertion of a reason for existence over nothingness, rejecting the idea of multiple voids.

„Whatever our final theory of physics, we will be left facing an irreducible mystery. (...)
The religious person is left wit a mystery which is no less
than the mystery with which science leaves us.“
Stephen Weinberg, Closer to Truth: tv episodes
„Why is there Something Rather than Nothing?“

1. Why Are There Any Beings at All?

2. Why Are There Any Concrete Beings?

3. Why Are There Any Contingent Beings?

4. Why Are There the Concrete / Contingent Beings There Are?

5. Why Do Concrete / Contingent Beings Exist Now?

6. Why Is There Not a Void?

A.3.1. „Why Are There Any Beings at All?“

 This formulation addresses the fundamental question of why there is something rather than nothing. It seeks to understand the existence of beings in general, encompassing all forms of existence, whether concrete or abstract, necessary or contingent. The emphasis is on the existence of beings as a whole.

A.3.2. „Why Are There Any Concrete Beings?“

 This formulation narrows down the focus to concrete beings specifically. It explores the reasons for the existence of tangible, perceptible entities in the world. Concrete beings refer to individual objects, entities, or organisms that have material existence in the physical realm.

A.3.3. „Why Are There Any Contingent Beings?“

 This formulation shifts the attention to contingent beings. Contingent beings are those whose existence is dependent on certain conditions or factors. They are not necessarily required to exist, and their existence is contingent upon various causes and conditions. The question delves into the reasons for the existence of these contingent beings.

A.3.4. „Why Are There the Concrete/Contingent Beings There Are?“

 This formulation combines the focus on concrete beings and contingent beings. It asks why the specific concrete or contingent beings that exist in the world are the way they are. It seeks to understand the particular characteristics, attributes, and conditions that define and shape these beings.

A.3.5. „Why Do Concrete/Contingent Beings Exist Now?“

 This formulation introduces the dimension of time. It inquires about the reasons for the current existence of concrete or contingent beings. It explores the temporal aspect of their existence and questions why they exist in the present moment as opposed to any other time.

A.4. The Role of Consciousness in Reality

 The role of consciousness in reality is a topic of debate among philosophers, scientists, and spiritual practitioners. Some argue that consciousness is a fundamental aspect of reality, while others view it as an emergent property of the brain. The ongoing discussion among various fields of inquiry about the role of consciousness in reality remains a fascinating and important topic of investigation. It refers to our subjective awareness of ourselves and the world around us, including our thoughts, emotions, sensations, and perceptions. Psychologists and neuroscientists are increasingly recognizing its importance in understanding the nature of reality.

1. Emerging Theories and Future Directions

2. The Interplay between Science, Philosophy, and Spirituality

 The role of consciousness in reality is a subject of much debate among various fields of inquiry, including philosophy, science, and spirituality.

 The term consciousness refers to an individual's subjective experience of awareness and perception, and it is often contrasted with the objective reality of the external world. Some philosophers and scientists argue that consciousness is a fundamental aspect of reality and cannot be reduced to purely physical or material processes. In this view, consciousness is not merely a byproduct of physical processes but rather an integral part of the fabric of the universe.

 Others, however, argue that consciousness is an emergent property of the brain, which is the result of the complex interactions of neurons and other biological processes. In this view, consciousness is not a fundamental aspect of reality but rather a product of physical processes in the brain.

 The debate over the role of consciousness in reality has far-reaching implications for our understanding of the nature of reality and the human experience. It raises questions about the relationship between the subjective experience of consciousness and the objective reality of the external world. It also has implications for our understanding of the human mind and the nature of mental states, such as perception, thought, and emotion.

 One prominent view is the theory of panpsychism, which suggests that consciousness is inherent in all matter at some level. According to this perspective, consciousness is not limited to humans or animals but exists in varying degrees in everything, from subatomic particles to complex systems. Proponents of panpsychism argue that consciousness is a fundamental aspect of the universe and may contribute to the fabric of reality itself.

 Another intriguing theory is the integrated information theory (IIT), which posits that consciousness arises from the integration of information within complex systems. According to IIT, consciousness emerges when a system has a high degree of informational integration, allowing for the generation of unified and differentiated states of experience.

 Regardless of the specific theories, consciousness is undeniably intertwined with our perception of reality. It shapes how we interpret and make sense of the world, influencing our thoughts, beliefs, and actions. It allows us to have subjective experiences and engage in self-reflection, enabling us to explore our own minds and understand the minds of others.

A.4.1. Emerging Theories and Future Directions

 The question of being is an important and ongoing area of inquiry that is likely to continue to evolve and develop in the future. Emerging theories and future directions include developments in neuroscience and artificial intelligence that seek to understand the nature of consciousness, as well as philosophical and spiritual perspectives that continue to explore the fundamental nature of existence.

 The question of being is a constantly evolving field of inquiry: One area of development is neuroscience, which seeks to understand the relationship between consciousness and the brain. Advances in neuroimaging and other technologies have allowed for new insights into the workings of the brain and how it produces conscious experience. Additionally, the field of artificial intelligence is also exploring the nature of consciousness and seeking to replicate it in machines. New ideas and perspectives are constantly emerging and being debated, with different theories and perspectives offering different insights into the fundamental nature of existence.

 Let's discuss a bit the ongoing inquiry into the question of being and how it is likely to evolve and develop in the future. The question of being is concerned with the nature of existence and consciousness, and it is explored through various fields, including neuroscience, artificial intelligence, philosophy, and spirituality.

 The advances in neuroimaging and other technologies have allowed for a better understanding of the relationship between the brain and consciousness. The brain is believed to be responsible for producing conscious experience, and neuroscience seeks to understand how this happens. Through the use of neuroimaging and other techniques, scientists have been able to study the brain in ways that were not possible before, leading to new insights and understandings of consciousness. Furthermore, advances in neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG), allow scientists to observe the brain in action and explore the neural correlates of consciousness. These technologies provide a window into the dynamic interplay between brain activity and conscious experiences, offering valuable data for understanding the relationship between the physical brain and subjective awareness.

 The second area of development is artificial intelligence. As the field of AI continues to grow, researchers are exploring ways to replicate consciousness in machines. This has led to the development of advanced AI systems that are capable of learning and adapting to new situations, but the question of whether or not machines can truly be conscious remains a topic of debate.

 Philosophical and spiritual perspectives continue to evolve in their explorations of the question of being. These fields offer different insights into the fundamental nature of existence, and different theories and perspectives are constantly being debated. Philosophers and spiritual thinkers seek to understand the nature of existence and consciousness through contemplation and reflection.

A.4.2. The Interplay between Science, Philosophy, and Spirituality

 The question of being involves a range of disciplines, including science, philosophy, and spirituality, offering unique insights into the nature of existence, and the interplay between them can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the question of being. Scientific discoveries can inform philosophical and spiritual perspectives, while philosophical and spiritual insights can inspire new scientific inquiry. The interplay between science, philosophy, and spirituality in understanding the question of being. Science uses empirical methods to understand the world, while philosophy deals with abstract questions of reality, knowledge, and morality, often using logic and reasoning. Spirituality encompasses religious and non-religious beliefs and offers insights into the human experience of being, including the nature of consciousness and subjective experience.

 Let's now highlight the interplay between science, philosophy, and spirituality in exploring the question of being: these different perspectives can offer unique insights into the nature of existence and that the interplay between them can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of the question of being.

 Science provides an empirical approach to understanding the world, relying on evidence-based methods to explore the nature of reality. Through scientific discoveries, we can gain insights into the fundamental laws of the universe, such as the laws of physics and chemistry. These discoveries can inform philosophical and spiritual perspectives, for example, by challenging or supporting certain beliefs or worldviews.

 Philosophy, on the other hand, is concerned with abstract questions about the nature of reality, knowledge, and morality. Philosophers often rely on logic and reasoning to explore these questions, and their insights can help clarify scientific and spiritual ideas. For example, philosophical debates around free will and determinism can inform scientific investigations into the nature of decision-making.

 Spirituality, which encompasses religious and non-religious beliefs about the nature of existence, can offer unique insights into the human experience of being. Spiritual practices such as meditation and prayer can provide individuals with a sense of connection to something greater than themselves, and insights into the nature of consciousness and subjective experience. These insights can inspire new scientific inquiry, for example, by raising questions about the relationship between mind and body.

A.5. Ancient Greek Philosophy: The Birth of Metaphysics

 The question "why is there something rather than nothing?" is deeply rooted in philosophical and scientific history, from ancient Greece to modern quantum physics. The Greeks laid down initial concepts for metaphysics, studying the fundamental nature of reality. Notably, Plato introduced the principle of causation and asked about the purpose behind creation. Epicharmus of Kos, an early philosopher and comic writer, also significantly contributed to the philosophical groundwork. Parmenides presented a theory where nothingness was an impossibility, claiming existence is eternal and unchanging. On the other hand, Aristotle believed in an eternally changing and moving universe without a definitive beginning or end. Later, Plotinus' philosophy perceived unity without multiplicity as a form of nothingness, stating that multiplicity wasn't nothing, but existed. This idea paralleled Leibniz's query about why existence prevails over non-existence, though not entirely equivalent. These philosophical thoughts continue to resonate in ongoing metaphysical discussions and speculations about the nature of reality.

Sextus Empiricus' Outlines of Pyrrhonism

1. A Perennial Inquiry

2. Plato

3. Parmenides

4. Aristotle

5. Plotinus

A.5.1. A Perennial Inquiry 

 The question „why is there something rather than nothing?“ can be traced back to the earliest civilizations. From ancient Greek philosophy to contemporary quantum physics, various disciplines have sought answers to this profound inquiry. The ancient Greeks were among the first to contemplate the existential question of why there is something rather than nothing. Their early philosophical ideas laid the groundwork for metaphysics, the branch of philosophy that deals with the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between existence and non-existence. After beginnings with Plato (nothing without causation, why-question of coming into being) two key figures, Parmenides and Aristotle (principium rationis), proposed different theories to explain the origins of the universe and the nature of existence.

„Nothing exists except atoms and empty space; everything else is opinion.“
Democritus

 The question of „why is there something rather than nothing?“ has been a perennial inquiry that has fascinated philosophers and scientists throughout history. Ancient Greek philosophers like Plato, Parmenides, and Aristotle proposed different theories to explain the origins of the universe and the nature of existence. Plato emphasized causation as a necessary condition for everything that exists, while Parmenides argued that „nothingness“ is a logical impossibility and that existence is eternal and unchanging.

 Aristotle, on the other hand, posited that the universe has always existed in a state of continuous motion and change, with no definitive beginning or end, and proposed the concept of the „Prime Mover“ or „Unmoved Mover“ as responsible for the continuous motion of the universe. Plotinus identified pure unity with nothingness and anticipated that a unity, which exists without multiplicity, is the same as nothing.

 These early philosophical ideas laid the groundwork for metaphysics, the branch of philosophy that deals with the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between existence and non-existence. While these theories have influenced the cosmological understanding of the Western world for many centuries, contemporary cosmological models, such as the Big Bang Theory, have largely replaced them with more contemporary understandings of the universe's origins and nature.

A.5.2. Plato

 The phrase "principium rationis" (Timaios 28a 4-6) is stating that nothing can exist without a cause or reason behind its existence. This is the principle of causation (Cf. Leibniz!). In Timaios 29d7 f., the speaker wants to explore why the creator made the universe and brought everything into existence. This is an inquiry into the purpose or intention behind creation. Epicharmus Comicus Syracusanus (c. 550 - c. 460 BC), an early Greek philosopher and comic writer, played a crucial role in setting the linguistic and conceptual groundwork for the first question of being. His ideas had a significant influence on later philosophical thought, just like those of Parmenides.

 a) principium rationis (Timaios 28a 4-6)

 b) Timaios 29d7 f.

 As decisive as Parmenides is for the further history of tradition, the linguistic preconditions as well as the content of a first question of being have already been provided by Epicharmus Comicus Syracusanus (Ἐπίχαρμος ὁ Κῷος), between c. 550 and c. 460 BC, was a Greek dramatist and philosopher who is often credited with being one of the first comic writers (Doric or Sicilian comedic form).

 Epicharmus in: Diogenes Laertius' fragment B 1:

A.5.3. Parmenides

 Parmenides argued that nothingness is a logical impossibility and existence eternal and unchanging: „... either sayable nor thinkable is is not.“

 Nothing comes from nothing. 

Greek: οὐδὲν ἐξ οὐδενός; Latin: ex nihilo nihil fit - is a philosophical dictum first argued by Parmenides - similar to the steady state-concept until Einstein(!), before the discovery of the expansion of the universe.
»τί δ᾽ ἄν μιν καὶ χρέος ὦρσεν ὕστερον ἢ πρόσθεν, τοῦ μηδενὸς ἀρξάμενον, φῦν; οὕτως ἢ πάμπαν πελέναι χρεών ἐστιν ἢ οὐχί.« Yet why would it be created later rather than sooner, if it came from nothing; so, it must either be created altogether or not [created at all]. Parmenides, first in: Aristotle's Physics: Transl. by John Burnet,“Parmenides, Fragments 1-19“. Lexundria.com. Retrieved 2020-02-04.

„From nothing, nothing comes.
Lucretius, De Rerum Natura, On the Nature of Things

„Nothing will come of nothing.“
William Shakespeare,
King Lear Act 1 Scene 1, to his daughter Cordelia

 The Parmenidean fragment B 8:

A.5.4. Aristotle

„Der Schatten des Nichts lässt das Seiende in seinem Sein hervortreten.“

~ The shadow of nothingness makes the being in its beingness manifest. (h.a.)

Aristoteles (Metaphysik, Buch VI, 1026b)

 Aristotle posited in contrast that the universe has always existed in a state of continuous motion and change, with no definitive beginning or end: (Met. XII 6, 1071b23–26)

 He proposed a model of the universe, rooted in his metaphysical and cosmological ideas, that differed from the widely accepted view of his time. Central to Aristotle's model is the concept of the Prime Mover or Unmoved Mover as responsible for the continuous motion of the universe: It does not directly intervene or physically move the universe but instead serves as the ultimate source of motion, inspiring all things to move towards it. This is because the Prime Mover is pure actuality, representing the ultimate state of perfection, causing all things to move and change. This view contrasted with the widely held belief in a created universe with a definitive beginning.

 Aristotle's eternal universe theory was influential in shaping the cosmological understanding of the Western world for many centuries. However, with the advent of modern scientific discoveries and the development of new cosmological models, such as the Big Bang Theory, Aristotle's view has been largely replaced by more contemporary understandings of the universe's origins and nature.

A.5.5. Plotinus

 Plotinus anticipates that a unity, which exists without multiplicity, is the same as a nothing, and thereby that multiplicity is not nothing, but something that exists. His 'How can there be multiplicity at all and not only unity' corresponds to Leibniz's 'Why is something/existing at all and not rather nothing' - in a certain sense, but not completely! *Enneade V 1 [10], 6.

 Plotinus was a philosopher who lived in the 3rd century AD and is considered one of the founders of Neoplatonism. In the text mentioned, Plotinus argues that unity and nothingness are essentially the same thing. He suggests that a state of absolute unity, without any form of multiplicity or differentiation, is tantamount to a state of nothingness. However, he also argues that the existence of multiplicity, or the existence of something, is not nothingness but rather a separate existence that coexists with nothingness.

 Plotinus' concept of unity and Leibniz's question of why there is something instead of nothing are related to the concept of existence and non-existence, but Plotinus' question is more specific to the nature of multiplicity and unity.

 Plotinus' identification of pure unity with nothingness is a complex and paradoxical concept. He suggests that the ultimate reality, which is absolute unity, is also equivalent to nothingness because it lacks any form of multiplicity or differentiation. This means that it cannot be defined or comprehended in any tangible way.

 However, Plotinus also recognizes that the existence of multiplicity and differentiation, which is the basis of our world, is not nothingness but something that exists. Therefore, the paradox arises that the ultimate reality is simultaneously nothing and something. This contradiction can be challenging to understand, but it is an essential aspect of Plotinus' philosophy and highlights the importance of transcending dualistic thinking to gain a deeper understanding of reality, like the concept of Dao by Laozi with the same two aspects of nothingness and everything combined, cf. in our part C) !

Source: Identification of the pure unity with nothingness:

A.6. Medieval Philosophy: Theological Perspectives on Existence - creatio ex nihilo

Nothingness: alteritas, the ultimate 'other' when compared to the being
that is specifically imparted to a possible being each time.

 Nicholas of Cusa (German philosopher Nikolaus von Kues)

 Medieval philosophers like Thomas Aquinas and Avicenna explored the nature of existence through a combination of religious and philosophical inquiry. Aquinas developed the cosmological argument as a basis for the existence of a first creator, arguing that everything in the universe has a cause that can be traced back to a First Cause, which he identified as The Creator. Avicenna, on the other hand, explored the concept of existence as a fundamental attribute of reality, distinguishing between essence and existence and identifying Him as the necessary being and ultimate cause of all other existents.

 Both Christian and Islamic philosophers sought to reconcile their faiths with rational thought, leading to a rich tapestry of ideas that laid the groundwork for future philosophical inquiry. This period of intellectual history reflects the enduring human desire to understand the nature of existence and the role of faith in shaping our understanding of reality.

1. Christianity and Islam

2. Thomas Aquinas and Avicenna

3. Fridugisus' answer to Charlemagne(!)

A.6.1. Christianity and Islam

 During the medieval period, Christian and Islamic philosophers worked to reconcile their religious beliefs with the rational thought of classical Greek philosophy. Christian philosophers, such as Thomas Aquinas, aimed to integrate Aristotle's concept of natural law with the teachings of the Bible, asserting that both faith and reason were necessary for understanding the world.

 Similarly, Islamic philosophers, including Al-Farabi and Ibn Rushd, sought to unite the Quran with Greek philosophy, highlighting the importance of reason in comprehending existence. This era of intellectual history illustrates the human desire to comprehend the world and our position in it, even in the face of seemingly incompatible belief systems. The period also highlights the significant role that faith and reason have in shaping our understanding of reality.

 During the medieval period, Christian and Islamic philosophers faced the challenge of reconciling their faiths with the rational thought of classical Greek philosophy. This led to a remarkable period of intellectual history that produced a rich tapestry of ideas that laid the groundwork for future philosophical inquiry. The interplay between religious thought and philosophical inquiry led to a rich exploration of the nature of existence.

 The Christian philosophers sought to harmonize Christian theology with the philosophical thought of Aristotle, who had been largely ignored by Christian theologians until that time. Aquinas, in particular, sought to reconcile the teachings of the Bible with Aristotle's idea of natural law, which held that the universe operated according to a rational and intelligible order. He argued that reason and faith were complementary, and that both were necessary for a complete understanding of the world.

 Similarly, Islamic philosophers, such as Al-Farabi and Ibn Rushd (also known as Averroes), sought to reconcile the teachings of the Quran with the rational thought of Greek philosophy. They believed that reason was an essential tool for understanding the nature of existence and that faith and reason could coexist peacefully. This period of intellectual history was characterized by a deep curiosity about the nature of existence and our place in the universe.

 This period also demonstrates the enduring human desire to understand the world around us and our place in it. It shows that even in the face of seemingly incompatible belief systems, people have always been driven to seek out knowledge and to make sense of their world. Ultimately, this period of intellectual history serves as a testament to the important role that faith can play in shaping our understanding of reality, as well as the vital role that reason and rational inquiry have in helping us to make sense of the world around us.

A.6.2. Thomas Aquinas and Avicenna

 Christian and Islamic philosophers, such as Thomas Aquinas and Avicenna, aimed to reconcile the teachings of their respective religions with rational thought. Aquinas developed the cosmological argument, consisting of five proofs that demonstrate a Creator's existence, including the concept of causality leading back to a First Cause, identified as Creator. Avicenna contributed significantly to the development of metaphysics in the Islamic intellectual tradition, emphasizing the distinction between essence and existence. He argued that existence is not an inherent part of an entity's nature, and the cause of existence is a necessary being, identified as Creator. Avicenna also introduced the concept of the „necessary existent“ and argued that a Creator is the ultimate cause of all existent beings, which are contingent upon a Creator for their existence.

 Philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas and Avicenna aimed to harmonize their understanding of the universe with the doctrines of Christianity and Islam, respectively. They delved into issues related to causality, the existence of a Creator, and divine intervention in the creation and sustenance of the universe. Christian and Islamic philosophers were not content to simply accept the teachings of their respective religions; they sought to understand them on a deeper level and to reconcile them with the rational thought of their time. 

 Thomas Aquinas, a prominent Christian theologian and philosopher, developed the cosmological argument as a rational basis for the existence of a Creator. The argument consists of five ways, or proofs, that Aquinas believed demonstrated a Creator's existence. One of these ways deals with the idea of causality, asserting that everything in the universe has a cause, and these causes can be traced back to a First Cause, which is itself uncaused. Aquinas identified this First Cause as Creator, who set the universe in motion and is responsible for its continued existence.

 Avicenna, an influential Islamic philosopher, made significant contributions to the development of metaphysics, particularly in the context of the Islamic intellectual tradition. He explored the concept of existence as a fundamental attribute of reality, emphasizing the distinction between essence and existence. Avicenna argued that the essence of a thing is distinct from its existence, and the fact that something exists is not an inherent part of its nature. According to Avicenna, the cause of existence is a necessary being, which he identified as the Creator. He also developed the idea of the „necessary existent,“ a being that exists by its very nature and cannot be conceived not to exist. He argued that this Creator, as the necessary existent, is the ultimate cause of all other existent, which are contingent upon a Creator for their existence.

A.6.3. Fridugisus' answer to Charlemagne(!)

 In response to a question from Charlemagne about the substance of nothingness and darkness, Fridugisus, a ninth-century philosopher, proposed in De substantia nihili et tenebrarum that while they are not physical substances, they still exist due to their perceptibility and effects. He classified them as residual phenomena, remaining when all else is removed. Fridugisus also explored the concept of creation ex nihilo, treating nothingness as a potential entity that can transform into anything. He further hypothesized about the existence and perception of shadows in space. His philosophies anticipated later discussions on the nature of space, vacuum, and dark matter, marking a significant milestone in early medieval philosophical thought.

 None other than Charlemagne (Karl der Große), Europe's greatest ruler, wondered about the nature of nothingness!

 He asked Fridugisus, a ninth-century scholar and educator who served at his court and was known for his significant philosophical work, whether Nothing and Darkness have substance or not, since they seem to have effects (e.g., one can be hindered by darkness).

 Fridugisus' answer in De substantia nihili et tenebrarum = On the Substance of Nothing and Darkness provides a unique insight into the philosophy of the time. Rooted in divine revelation and scriptural interpretation, a common viewpoint in the Middle Ages, he suggests that while nothingness and darkness are not substances in the same way as physical objects, they are nevertheless something because they can be perceived and have effects. He claims that, unlike everything else that exists, they are not created entities. Instead, they are residual phenomena - Nothing be what is left when everything else is removed, and Darkness is what exists in the absence of light.

 Fridugisius seems to have treated Nothing as a real entity that can potentially become anything. This view is used to explain and justify the idea of creation ex nihilo, or creation from nothing. Regarding shadows, he believed that they imply that shadows exist in space, can move through space, and can be perceived by senses other than sight. His exploration of these concepts anticipates much later philosophical and scientific debates about the nature of space, vacuum, and dark matter. His work represents a significant moment in the history of philosophical thought, demonstrating the sophistication and complexity of early medieval philosophical and theological thought.

A.6.4. Meister Eckhart

 Meister Eckhart (of Hochheim, * ~1260), a German theologian, philosopher, and mystic, emphasized the concept of „Divine Nothingness“ as central to understanding the Creator. This concept is rooted in apophatic theology, which seeks to describe the divine by what it is not. Eckhart defined the Creator as „Nothing,“ „No-Thing,“ or „Divine Nothingness,“ transcending all human categories of understanding as the ground of all being. The soul had also to become „Nothing“ - void of ego, desires, and earthly attachments. This state of emptiness or nothingness of the soul then allows it to be imbued with the divine presence. Understanding Eckhart's philosophy is challenging due to its intricate metaphysical ideas and its historical context. His views on nothingness are deeply intertwined with profound insights into spirituality, metaphysics, and mysticism, best appreciated within the full context of his overall philosophy and theology.

There exists only the present instant...
a Now which always and without end is itself new.
There is no yesterday nor any tomorrow, but only Now,
as it was a thousand years ago and as it will be a thousand years hence.
Meister Eckhart

Yes, Eckhart Tolle („The Power of Now“, also a native German, called himself after Meister Eckhart!
„Meister“ derived from honorific magister, granted only to the most learned of university-trained scholars! - h.a.

 Meister Eckhart (c. 1260 – c. 1328), a German theologian, philosopher, and mystic, he had a deep and nuanced understanding of the concept of nothingness. His teachings often revolve around apophatic theology (the attempt to describe the Creator by negation), which leads to a kind of „Divine Nothingness“.

 As Eckhart frequently referred to the Creator as a „Nothing,“ „No-Thing,“ or a „Divine Nothingness,“ in the sense of beyond all categories, all predicates, all things that we can conceive or perceive in our human understanding, transcending all forms, not a being among beings, but the ground of all being. He is pointing out that a Creator / the creation is beyond the conceptual understanding. He is asserting that they cannot be encapsulated by human categories of thought.

 Furthermore, Eckhart emphasized that, similar to some Eastern philosophies e.g. Daoism, in order to truly know and unite with this Divine Nothingness, the soul itself must become Nothing - empty of ego, desire, and all earthly attachments. This Emptiness of the soul enables it to be filled with the divine presence.

 Eckhart's thought is quite complex, given the subtlety of his metaphysical ideas and the historical context in which he was writing. His writings on Nothingness are interwoven with profound insights into spirituality, metaphysics, and mysticism, and are best understood in the context of his overall philosophy and theology.

A.7. The Enlightenment: Rationalism and Empiricism

This pure being is now the „pure abstraction“, i.e. the
„absolute-negative“, which, also directly taken, is the „nothing“.
Hegel, Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften, § 87

 The Enlightenment period, which occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries and was marked by a focus on rationalism and empiricism. This approach emphasized reason, observation, and the pursuit of knowledge as the primary means of understanding the universe. Immanuel Kant and David Hume were two of the key philosophers of this era who contributed significantly to the development of modern philosophy. Kant's work, as presented in his Critique of Pure Reason, focused on the nature and limits of human knowledge. He argued that our understanding of reality is constrained by the categories of space and time, which are inherent to human cognition, and that these limitations prevent us from accessing the true nature of reality, known as the noumenal world. As a result, the ultimate question of why there is something rather than nothing remains beyond the scope of human understanding.

 Hume was a strong advocate of empiricism, which asserts that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. His approach to the question of existence focused on the role of natural processes and causality in the formation of the universe. He contended that the existence of the universe could be explained by the observation of natural phenomena and the application of empirical principles, without resorting to supernatural explanations. He also challenged the notion of a necessary being or first cause, arguing that our understanding of causality is based on habit and experience, rather than logical necessity. Enlightenment was a significant period in intellectual and philosophical development that challenged traditional ways of thinking and opened up new paths for understanding the world. Kant's and Hume's works laid the foundation for future generations of thinkers to continue exploring existential questions and expand our understanding of the world. Their ideas continue to influence philosophical thought today.

1. Enlightenment

2. Kant

3. Hume

4. Carnap

A.7.1. Enlightenment

The Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th centuries, was a period of intellectual and philosophical development marked by a focus on rationalism and empiricism, emphasizing reason, observation, and the pursuit of knowledge as the primary means of understanding the universe. Immanuel Kant and David Hume offered new insights into the nature of existence and knowledge through analytical and empirical lenses. Kant critically examined the limits and capabilities of human reason, while Hume's empirical approach highlighted the importance of experience and observation. The Enlightenment was a pivotal moment in the history of philosophy that challenged traditional ways of thinking and opened up new paths for understanding the world.

 The Enlightenment, a period of intellectual and philosophical development in the 17th and 18th centuries, marked a significant shift in the focus of philosophy by an emphasis on rationalism and empiricism, which prioritized reason and observation as the primary means of understanding the universe. Key philosophers of this time, such as Immanuel Kant and David Hume, approached existential questions through analytical and empirical lenses, offering new insights into the nature of existence and knowledge.

 The Enlightenment was a significant period in intellectual and philosophical development during the 17th and 18th centuries. Its focus on reason, observation, and the pursuit of knowledge marked a departure from earlier philosophical approaches. Kant and Hume, two key philosophers of this era, were among those who sought to understand the nature of existence and the universe through rational and empirical methods.

 Kant's approach involved a critical examination of the limits and capabilities of human reason, while Hume's empirical approach emphasized the importance of experience and observation. Their works laid the foundation for future generations of thinkers to continue exploring existential questions and expand our understanding of the world. The Enlightenment was a pivotal moment in the history of philosophy that challenged traditional ways of thinking and paved the way for new ways of understanding the world.

A.7.2. Kant

 Immanuel Kant played a significant role in the Enlightenment period. His work in the Critique of Pure Reason focused on the nature and limits of human knowledge. He argued that human understanding of reality is constrained by the categories of space and time, which are inherent to human cognition. Kant’s theory suggests that the noumenal world, which represents the true nature of reality, is beyond the scope of human understanding.

 In his transcendental analytic within the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant added a small consideration about the opposition of possibility and impossibility in relation to the categories at the end of the appendix. To each class of categories also corresponds their negation. In this context, Kant gives a more detailed classification of nothing, relating it to his categories of understanding (quantity, quality, relation, modality), and each of these forms of nothing negates the corresponding category.

„Unconditioned necessity, which we so indispensably require as the last bearer of all things,
is for human reason the veritable abyss.
Eternity itself, in all its terrible sublimity, as depicted by a Haller
 is far from making the same overwhelming impression on the mind;
for it only measures the duratin of things, it does not support them.“
Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, A613

 Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher who played a significant role in the Enlightenment period. His work in the Critique of Pure Reason focused on the nature and limits of human knowledge. One of the questions he tackled in this work was the question of why there is something rather than nothing. He argued that human understanding of reality is constrained by the categories of space and time, which are inherent to human cognition. These categories, according to Kant, provide the framework for our perception of reality and are necessary for us to have any knowledge at all. However, they also limit our understanding of the true nature of reality.

 Kant's theory suggests that the noumenal world, which represents the true nature of reality, is beyond the scope of human understanding. This is because our cognition is limited to the categories of space and time, and thus we cannot perceive or understand anything that lies beyond these categories. Kant's perspective on this question can be seen as a departure from the rationalist tradition, which emphasized the power of human reason to comprehend the world around us. Instead, Kant's work emphasizes the importance of human experience and the limitations of our cognitive abilities.

 Kant's ideas have had a significant impact on philosophy and continue to be relevant today. His work challenges traditional ways of thinking about the nature of reality and human understanding, and his concept of the noumenal world has been the subject of ongoing philosophical debate. Overall, Kant's work represents an important contribution to the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and empirical observation, and his ideas continue to influence philosophical thought today.

 In his transcendental analytic within the Critique of Pure Reason, Immanuel Kant added a small consideration about the opposition of possibility and impossibility in relation to the categories at the end of the appendix. To each class of categories also corresponds their negation. Afterward, Nothing is to be distinguished according to the category titles Quantity, Quality, Relation, and Modality into:

1. Nothing as empty thought (Gedankending) - This form of nothing corresponds to the category of quantity. It represents the absence of quantity, such as an empty set in mathematics.

2. Nothing as the absence of something (Mangel an Etwas) - This nothing corresponds to the category of quality. It refers to the absence of a quality or property, similar to privative nothing in Kant's three forms of nothingness.

3. Nothing as pure intuition or mere form (reine Anschauung oder bloße Form) - This nothing corresponds to the category of relation. It's a concept of space and time without any objects or events to fill them. Kant's „transcendental aesthetic“ regards space and time as forms of our intuition, and here „nothing“ refers to these forms when they are empty.

4. Nothing as non-entity or absurdity (Unding) - This nothing corresponds to the category of modality (possibility - impossibility, existence - nonexistence, necessity - contingency). Here, the nothing is something logically impossible or absurd. This is similar to the contradictory nothing in Kant's three forms of nothingness.

 So, in this context, Kant gives a more detailed classification of nothing, relating it to his categories of understanding (quantity, quality, relation, modality), and each of these forms of nothing negates the corresponding category. This classification integrates nothing into the core of his philosophical system.

A.7.3. Hume

 Hume was a strong advocate of empiricism, which asserts that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. His approach to the question of existence focused on the role of natural processes and causality in the formation of the universe. Hume contended that the existence of the universe could be explained by the observation of natural phenomena and the application of empirical principles, without resorting to supernatural explanations. He also challenged the notion of a necessary being or first cause, arguing that our understanding of causality is based on habit and experience, rather than logical necessity.

 David Hume was a prominent Enlightenment philosopher who championed the concept of empiricism, which holds that knowledge is derived from sensory experience. In contrast to previous philosophical ideas that relied on supernatural explanations, Hume argued that natural processes and causality were the key factors in the formation of the universe.

 Hume believed that our understanding of causality was based on habit and experience, rather than logical necessity, and that the existence of the universe could be explained by observing natural phenomena and applying empirical principles, rather than resorting to supernatural explanations. He also challenged the idea of a necessary being or first cause, arguing that our understanding of causality is based on habit and experience rather than logical necessity.

 His ideas have had a profound impact on the development of modern philosophy and science, influencing the ways in which we approach questions about existence, causality, and the role of empirical evidence in understanding the world. By emphasizing the importance of observation and natural processes, Hume challenged traditional ways of thinking and paved the way for new insights into the nature of reality. They continue to be relevant today in discussions about the nature of existence.

A.7.4. Carnap

 Rudolf Carnap, a leading figure in logical positivism, advocated for a perspective that assigned meaning to statements only if they could be empirically verified or were analytically true. In relation to the concept of nothing, Carnap applied his principle of tolerance, proposing that its meaning is defined by the linguistic context rather than any metaphysical essence. As an example, nothing could represent an absence of something within a specified context. Carnap's views contrast traditional philosophies that treat nothing as a metaphysical concept. Despite criticisms and not being the prevailing viewpoint in modern philosophy, Carnap's stance remains influential, especially in philosophy of science and language.

 Rudolf Carnap was a key figure in the philosophical movement known as logical positivism. This movement emphasizes a strict adherence to the empirical sciences and logical analysis. For logical positivists like Carnap, meaning is attached to statements only if they can be verified empirically or if they are true by definition (that is, they are analytic).

 When it comes to the concept of nothing, Carnap would likely analyze it through his principle of tolerance, which he discusses in his work,

„The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language“. He advocated for the freedom to create and choose any linguistic framework that suits our purposes, provided that the framework is internally consistent and useful.

 Nothing, for Carnap, does not have a metaphysical essence or represent a fundamental category of being, as it might in some other philosophical systems. Rather, it's a term whose meaning is dependent on the linguistic context in which it is used.

 For example, if we say „There is nothing in the box,“ the word nothing is understood in terms of absence - the absence of anything in the box. It's a way of speaking about the non-existence of things within a certain context. We can't empirically verify nothing as we can't observe or measure it. However, we can verify the absence of something by looking into the box and seeing that there's nothing there.

 Carnap's view contrasts with many traditional philosophical approaches, which might try to treat nothing as a metaphysical concept or a category of existence. For Carnap, nothing is a term within a linguistic framework, its meaning defined by that framework, not a reflection of some deeper metaphysical reality.

 It's crucial to remember that logical positivism, including Carnap's views, has been significantly criticized and is not the dominant view in contemporary philosophy. Nonetheless, it has been highly influential in certain areas, particularly philosophy of science and language.

A.8. Philosophical Approaches to the Question